With modifications wherever necessary, the present translation is based on the Arabic text as edited by Krenkow, with some of the gloss supplied by Khatib Dariya translated under the footnotes (pp. 231-235) which follow the text. In his epilogue (in Arabic), Krenkow mentioned his grappling with the terse style of Beruni (with whom economy of words and purposive brevity was a must) and the difficulty involved in identifying the unknown place names mentioned in the text. This would indicate the need for preparing a more thoroughly annotated edition of the book through a joint effort of specialists from different disciplines. It is to be hoped that the publication of this translation will, in a measure, facilitate this task.

In the Arabic edition, the contents are placed in the following order. The text of Kitab al-jamahir, beginning with the first Part (Fasl) comprising the introduction (pp. 1-31), followed by the second Part (Fasl) divided into two Discourses, Maqala-I (pp.31-228) and Maqala-II (pp. 228-267). Here the text of Kitab al- Jamahir ends with the attestation of Ahmad b. Siddiq who transcribed it in the year 626 A.H. There after, is places a 'Supplement' (Mulhq)  on 'The Mines of Yaman'(pp. 268-271) by some one who composed it from the various manuscripts of Al-Hamadani's  AL-IKLIL (Book- VIII) its date of transcription is 1112 A.H. (though it might have been added at an earlier date?). Page 272 contains editor's references to the manuscripts used by him, and page 273 a note by the publishers (Majlis Da'rat al-Ma'arif). Then in eleven pages, numbered separately (pp.1-11), is reproduced a part of the text of Kitab al-Jamahir which was mistakenly left out in the print (after line 14, page 141 of the Arabic text). This is followed by editor Krenkow's khatimah or epilogue (1-4 pages in Arabic), and finally the index of personal and place names (pp.1-41).

The above sequence has been re-adjusted in this edition. In main, the mistakenly left out part has been put in its proper place (in this ed., p. 116 line 25-p. 125-line28):and thus after reconstructing the complete text of Kitab al-Jamahir (pp. 1-227), is placed the supplement (Mulhaq) on 'The Mines of Yaman' (pp. 227)-231) which is followed by three constitutes Appendix-I, which is followed by Appendix-II and Appendix-III contributed by Hakim Mohammad Sa'id to show how gemstones, pearls, minerals and metals are utilized as effective ingredients in the Tibb System of Medicine.

The multidimensional merit of this work as well as the versatile genius of Beruni have been underlined both in the 'Foreword' to the text and in the 'Evaluation' that follows it. Beside much of common sense, philosophy, anthropology, evolution, history, geography, lore and literature, the specifically scientific content (physics, geo-chemistry, botany, marine biology, mineralogy, metallurgy) is writ large in the text of Kitab al-Jamahir. In different contexts, Beruni has often made observations of scientific import. For example:

- The crystal in its pristine state was liquid in motion (p.163). The crystal is congealed water (p. 160).

-  Milk, a liquid, forms bones, and the harder fruit stones are formed by water (p. 167).

-  The magnet piece which is in direct contact with the air and the sun loses its (magnetic) force (p. 184).

- The capacity of the lightening to melt solid objects that can be melted, argues for the fact that air accompanies lightening and thunder bolt (p.215).

-  The alchemists (al-kimya'un) claim that they can make better gold than the natural gold….. can remain a claim only their product, which they call humtan, to say the least, is corrupt (pp. 211-12)

Of great importance is his calculation of relative weights and volumes and specific gravities, which has engaged the attention of discerning scholars. Long back, Krenkow had observed:

No other work in Arabic or Persian of which I have knowledge treats the subject in such a scientific manner, and as a rule other works made no pretence of investigating the specific weights, hardness and probable origin of the precious stones and minerals discussed. (The Chapter on Pearls).

Of all the books on jewels and mined stones beruni's book enjoys superiority in that he has established the specific gravity of most of the stones and jewels he has described. It is only through the knowledge of the specific gravity of stones that imitation can be detected and the precious stones saved from imitation. (Khatima at the end of the Arabic ed.)

More recently, attention was called particularly to the "scientific problems raised by al-Biruni in this work –viz. the origin of minerals and metals, growth of minerals and the progressive formation of metals, and the determination of specific gravity of metals and minerals. (Anawati, G.C.: The Kitab al-Jamahir, Al-Biruni Commemorative Volume, Hamdard Academy, Karachi. 1979).

In view of all sorts of tales and claims about quality and purity of precious stones and metals, Beruni saw the need for devising a scientific method where by genuine metals and gemstones could be distinguished from the corrupt ones and also the comparative degree of excellence of each could be precisely established. The idea of standard weights and specific gravity had dawned upon him, and he sat down to prove it experimentally. Thus he devised a specific gravity flask and operating it in combination with his 'Water Balance' he determined relative weights and specific gravities of different metals and minerals.

All this has not been elaborated by Beruni in Kitab al-Jamahir, but on the basis of his experimentation and verification, he has given relative weights of a number of metals and minerals and also made other relevant observation as under:

(a)  With gold as the axis (qutb) having the standard weight of 100. the relative weight. With equivalence in volume, of mercury= 71 (p. 199), tubal iron 41-1/3 (p. 215), copper= 45.2/3 (p.211). Shibh (yellow copper) = 44-7/8 (p. 225), lead= 60-1/8 (p. 221).

(b)   With ghubari ruby as the axis (qutb) having the standard weight of 100, the relative weight, with equivalence in volume, of the red ruby = 97-1/8 (p. 64), bussed 64-13/24 (p. 166), lapiz lazuli= 67-7/12 (p. 168). Emerald 79^1/2 (p. 142), Subaj (about)=28 (p. 172), Kehruba = 21-5/12 (p. 182), hajar al-awz = 103^3/4 (p. 186). Syrian glass = 62-19/24 (p. 191), and Green glass= 99-1/3 (p. 194).

(c)    Weight being the same, gold is less in volume than silver (p.26).

(d)   Weight of gold. As compared to any other metal/mineral of an equivalent volume, always remains less in value (p. 202).

(e)    Volume being the same, silver is less in mass and heavier than copper (p. 26).

(f)    Ratio of weight-gold ten dirhams: silver fifty dirhams: brass fifteen manma (p. 26).

(g)    Ratio in volume of iron and gold. Both of same weight is 151:63 as verified by me by means of the water balance (p. 202).

(h)   I have not verified the relative weights of bijadhi and ghmbari (rubies) (p.73).

In this context. Beruni has also stated that he has authored a special Monograph (Maqalah) on this subject (p. 64). Its full title is to be found in the Fihrist (list) of his own works. Drawn up by Beruni himself as Maqalah fi al-nisab allati bayn al-filizzat wa al-jawahir fi al-hajm (The Treatise on Ratios in Volume of Metals and Precious Stones). As the Fihrist was compiled by him in 427 A.H. (1035). the Maqalah was obviously composed by him earlier. Being a scientific work of a pioneering nature. it was used subsequently by scientists for the next tow centuries. Though it continued to echo in scholarly circles for centuries thereafter. Abu Jafar Al Khazini (d. 550 A.H. / 1155) extracted it in the Third Part (maqalah) of his own work Mizan Al-Hikmat² (The Balance of Wisdom) referring to it as Abu Rayhan Beruni's "Kitab al-nisab bayn al-filizzat wa al-Jawahir fi al-hajm³" Later on the scholastic Sa'id al-Din Al-Taftazani (d. 791 A.H. / 1389) recorded a description of Beruni's apparatus and experiment (most probably based on the Maqalah) in his own work Sharh al-Maqasid (see below).

Both in Khazini's extraction and in Taftazani's description it is stated that the sample of water used by Beruni for filling in his specific gravity flask was drawn by him from one fixed place in the section of the Oxus (Jayhun) river adjacent to the capital city of Jurjaniyah. This confirms that Beruni had started studying gemstones, minerals and metals long before his arrival in Ghaznah in 408/1017. This was during his stay in Jurjaniyah on the Oxus, the capital of the Mamunid Princes (opposite to Kath on the other side which was the capital of the previous Banu Iraq dynasty) of Khwarazm.

On the basis of the recorded events. The period of Beruni's stay in Jurjaniyah can more or less be precisely fixed from the year 399 A.H. to 407 A.H. (1008-1016/17 A.D.). He was born (Thursday, 3 Dhu'l Hijjah 362 A.H.) in his native city of Kath, the then capital of Khwarazm where after completing his education. he engaged himself in independent scientific research beginning at least from the year 380/990 when he made an astronomical observation. He continued his work uninterrupted for the next five years until 385/995 when civil war broke out and Beruni left the country. He remained out of Khwarazm for the next fourteen years (385-399) except for a temporary visit to Kath in 387/997 to observe a lunar eclipse. He finally returned to his country some time before or early in 399/1008. This time to jurjaniyah the capital of Abu al-Hasan Ali, the ruling Prince of the new Mamunid Dynasty, who had specially invited him.

It was on the basis of his specialized knowledge based on his experimentally verified conclusions during this period that he came to be recognized as an authority on gemstones and was officially assigned the responsibility to oversee the annual dispatch of presents which would include precious stones of rare quality, to the Ghaznavid Sultan Mahmud (cf. k. al-jamahir, present ed. p. 47) by his brother-in-law Prince Abu al-Abbas Mamun of Khwarazm 399-407 A.H. Thus, mainly it was during the period of about 9 years (399-407 A.H.) prior to his arrival in Ghaznah in 408/1017, that Beruni had devised and perfected his apparatus and instruments. conducted his experiments and determined relative weights and volumes as well as specific gravity of a number of metals and gemstones with precision.

On the hydrostatic method of finding specific gravity, Beruni observed thus: “Scientific men determine by means of water the measure of these differences in weights. They prepare a vessel filled with water in which they introduce 100 mithqals of each of the metals: the quantity of water thrown out by each gives the difference in volume and weight, that one which displaces the largest bulk of water has consequently the largest volume but the least density, and that one which displaces the least water is the heaviest.” The special flask for holding water which he designed was rightly called by Khazini after the name of Abu al- Rayhan Al- Beruni as “The Conical of Instrument of Abu al-Rayhan”. While experimenting with it, Beruni detected the capillary action which caused the water to rise in the mizab.with drops thereof remaining suspended in its curvature also, Beruni visualised the solution that if the mizab were given a circular flexure, made shorter than a semi circle and pierced with holes, the water will flow down through it smoothly without any of the droplets remaining suspended. He also understood it that the length and the diameter of the flask’s neck affected the experiment and noted that “he could have made it narrower than the little finger” but for the difficulty of inserting through it down into the vessel and again taking out of it the somewhat larger pieces of metals/minerals. After gaining such insights, he modelled to near perfection what historically became “Beruni’s Specific Gravity Flask”.

Besides the shape of the flask, some other factors which caused variations in results were also detected by Beruni. The one was the absolute cleanliness of the metal/ mineral and purity of the water used. and the other, a more subtle one, temperature of water, Beruni knew that temperature influenced the density of water and of other liquids: and he had also determined it that difference between the density of cold and hot water was 0.041677 (N. Khanik off, p. 80). Beruni, therefore sounded the warning that in the kind of experiments conducted by him to determine specific gravity, it was but necessary to control the water factor, because of the changes occurring in water due to its different sources and coursed and the temperatures to which it was subjected during the four seasons. nn the analogy of air “Therefore he says “in all our experiments we used the water drawn from one fixed place from the oxus river adjacent to Jurjaniyah in the beginning of the autumn (kharif) season. However he also explained the general principle that even the ordinary drinking water was good enough provided the same water under the same conditions was used while experimenting with different metals and minerals, and yet the scientists after Beruni kept following him faithfully, not only in their careful use of the balance but, as Khazini informs they also related the process of finding the specific gravities to a determined sort of water, similar in density to the water of Jayhun of Khwarazam, exclusively of other waters (Mizan-al-Hikmat, p. 70 & introduction, Section 5)

Beruni’s keen observation, insights and understandings, and his ability to design and refine his apparatus, contributed to the success of his experiments in determining the specific gravity of gemstones, metals and other minerals with remarkable accuracy. In his study (Jr. Asiatique XI. 1858). j. j. Clement-Mullet produced a table of comparative figures of specific gravities for 18 metals/minerals as given by Beruni with modern figures (in 1858) to show the remarkable accuracy of Beruni’s calculations. Subsequently, H.C. Bolton also gave modern figures in his study in 1876 as in the following table.

The scholastic Sa’d al- Din Taftazani’s concise and interesting description of Beruni’s experimentation in Jurjaniyah, Khwarazm, may be noted:

In order to determine the comparative difference between metals and some stones from the point of volume, lightness and heaviness, Abu Rayhan had devised a vessel resembling the tabarzad, on the neck of which was mounted a curved tube (mizab) as it is in abariq (flasks). He filled the vessel with water and put into it one hundred mithqal (of a given metal/mineral) - say of gold, below the tip (ras) of the mizab, he placed one pan of the balance (to hold water)

where by he intended to find the volume weight of water displaced from the vessel. For this experiment, it was first ensured by him that the metal/ mineral were clean and so also the water. The water used by him in his experiments was that of the Jaylum (Oxus) river in (the capital of) Khwarazm drawn during the kharif (autumn) season, for undoubtedly the results (according to him) depended on the quality of the water used in its changing conditions in different regions and seasons. From the weight/volume of the water displaced from the vessel on immersion of 100 mithqal of each metal/mineral he determined the relative difference between their weights and volumes… Abu Rayhan and his followers have prepared a standard table of the quantity of water that pours out of the vessel when (i) 100 mithqal of gold, silver or any other metal/mineral are put into it: (ii) when nine different metals/minerals equivalent in volume of 100 mithqal of gold, are put into it” (iii) when gemstones equivalent in volume to 100 mithqal of Celestial Hyacinth (al-Yaqut al-Asmanjuni) are put it: and (iv)  when any weights, which have volume equal to that of 100 mithqal when out of water and different when inside water (al-Taftazani: Sharh Maqasid fi ‘Ilm Usul Aqaid al-Din, Al-Haj Muharram Effendi Press, Istanbul, Jumada-I, 1305 A.H., p. 376)

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